徐海韵 刘栗 丁鹏 （丹麦）玛雅·斯蒂恩·穆勒

气候变化已经成为影响全球可持续发展的一个重要因素[1]。联合国政府间气候变化专门委员会（IPCC）指出，近年来世界上许多地方都遭受了气候变化带来的灾难，包括突发的洪水、风暴、干旱、高温、热浪、寒潮等极端天气事件[2]。这种负面影响至少在未来100年内还会继续存在[3]。气候灾难对人类的经济社会生活带来了忧患和风险。

气候变化适应被定义为自然或人类系统为应对气候变化所做的调整，从而在气候变化中获得有利于人类发展的机会[4]。这里的适应可以被理解为系统（如生态系统）中的一个过程、行动或结果，它可以改善系统（如生态系统），使其更好地适应变化的气候条件[5]。气候适应可以通过各种方式完成，而其中基于生态系统的适应（EbA）获得了越来越多的关注。EbA在2008年首次被《联合国气候变化框架公约》（UNFCCC）确认为国际政策，此后得到了多国环保组织的大力支持[6]。EbA的定义为对生态系统服务（ecosystem services,ES）进行管理、保护和恢复，以协助人们适应气候变化带来的不利影响[7]。EbA关注范围是多样化的，它可以针对特定的现有气候灾害，探索导致现有气候灾害的因素，帮助人类应对灾害或从灾害中恢复；
也可以针对未来的气候变化，提前处理当前的气候适应缺陷[5,8]。其对气候变化的应对是基于对ES的管理实现的。ES即人类从自然界获取的各类益处，包括供给服务（如生产食物、燃料和水）、调节服务（如预防土壤侵蚀和控制洪水）、支持服务（形成土壤），以及文化服务（如娱乐和其他非物质利益）[9]。这些生态系统服务，如供给和调节服务决定了生态系统在适应气候变化和防备灾害方面的关键功能，对于人类未来适应气候变化和化解灾难风险至关重要。这些服务也突出了EbA措施的优势：与典型的基于基础设施的措施相比，EbA能提供既经济又能与自然界关系更密切的干预措施，除了提供气候变化适应的益处以外，还能提供更多样的环境益处[10]，例如通过改善生境条件来保护生物多样性，改善娱乐和旅游设施，提升粮食产量等[11-13]。EbA措施取决于当地环境、生态系统类型和气候变化危害的类型。例如，在城市背景下，人类和基础设施面临较高的洪水风险，利用绿地进行雨水管理是越来越多被实施的EbA措施。而在海洋和沿海环境中，发展可持续渔业和恢复沿海珊瑚礁，则是用以帮助应对渔业减产的EbA措施。而对于沿海地区的洪水风险，适宜实施的EbA措施包括红树林恢复和海岸保护等。EbA作为全球气候战略中的一个重要组成部分已经在全球范围内广泛应用。欧洲的许多城市已经研究了其在气候变化适应性城市规划中的应用前景[14-15]。

然而，由于对具体项目实施缺乏记录，目前关于将EbA措施实际纳入城市气候适应计划的研究较为有限。例如，C40城市气候领导联盟（The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group，简称C40联盟）是一个致力于应对气候变化和倡导《巴黎协定》的全球城市联盟[16]。在加入C40联盟的欧洲城市中，尽管已有超过45%的城市在各自的计划中提到了适应气候变化的各种EbA措施（表1）[7]，却只有2.3%的城市实施了具体的EbA措施。许多城市在面对气候变化适应与其他可持续性目标相结合的问题时，不具备将不同层次的利益相关者组织起来的能力，所以难以推动EbA的实践。鉴于在目前实施EbA措施的城市中，哥本哈根市较为知名[7,16-17]，因此本研究旨在总结哥本哈根市政府应用EbA措施在气候变化适应性城市建设中多尺度层面的合作规划与实施经验。通过梳理哥本哈根市气候变化适应计划政策以及分析EbA在市域、社区、单体建筑3个尺度的合作应用，并且结合案例阐释哥本哈根市政府如何通过政府、企业、公民等多方利益相关者的合作规划，推动EbA措施应用于当地气候变化适应性城市建设，从而更好地进行当地生态系统服务管理与提升。

表1 欧洲城市的相关规划文件提到EbA措施示例[7]Tab. 1 Examples of EbA measures mentioned in European cities[7]

丹麦首都哥本哈根市属于温带海洋性气候，四季温和，雨量充沛，7—8月降雨最为频繁。进入21世纪以来，哥本哈根市面临着气候变化的压力，最严重的极端天气事件是发生在2011年和2014年的2次“百年一遇”强降雨引发的特大洪水。丹麦气象研究所（DMI）预测如强降雨这样的极端天气在丹麦将变得更加普遍。预计到2100年，“10年一遇”的降雨强度将上升30%～40%；
预计到2050年，哥本哈根市的夏季峰值温度将上升2～3℃。哥本哈根市还将遭受海平面上升带来的影响。在未来的100年内，城市周围的海平面将增加上升约1 m。这些气候变化带来的洪水威胁直接影响着哥本哈根的城市生活，并不断威胁着城市的发展[15]。

在此情况下，哥本哈根市迫切地需要应对气候变化挑战并提升居民生活质量。因此，气候变化适应性城市的建设已经成为哥本哈根城市规划和政策制定的重要内容。近10年来，哥本哈根市制定了各种适应政策和计划，以应对气候变化带来的极端天气[15-16]。丹麦主要的气候变化挑战决定了其城市实践中对与气候变化适应相关的术语的使用和关注的方向。而且术语的使用范围和内涵随着时间推移和政策变化也会发生改变。对于气候变化适应，丹麦在过去十几年的讨论与实践中多关注城市雨洪管理与城市景观结合等领域。近几年来，丹麦对海平面上升有了更多关注，相关讨论和实践项目也会专门说明其应对海平面上升的计划，但已实施的项目仍为少见。因此，当提到气候变化适应的实践时，哥本哈根市已建成项目主要围绕城市雨洪管理与城市景观规划的结合方面进行。基于以上情况，本研究重点探讨哥本哈根气候变化适应性城市的建设实践中的城市雨洪管理。

2.1《哥本哈根气候适应计划》

《哥本哈根气候适应计划》的制定是为了应对哥本哈根市未来发生更频繁的雨洪挑战，同时能够促进社会、经济和环境的综合可持续性发展，以及提高居民生活质量，这也是对联合国可持续发展目标的回应[17-20]。该计划强调了与其他城市规划协同的最大可能性，以及雨洪调节之外的额外社会收益，如休闲娱乐机会的增加和当地绿色空间环境的改善[1]。在这个计划中，哥本哈根市政府制定了3个主要的气候变化适应措施[15,20]。

措施1与基础设施的气候适应有关，包括增强城市排水管网系统的污水处理能力、建设新的泵站和加固水坝。哥本哈根市首先在有可能发生严重雨洪灾害的地区采取这一措施预防气候变化带来的破坏。

措施2可以增强城市场地内的雨洪滞留能力，降于建筑屋顶和街道的雨水与其原有的污水管道断离并引流至分离的雨水管道或可持续的城市排水系统（SuDS），从而减少了排入城市雨污合流管网的雨洪比例。

措施3保证了在极端降雨情况下，洪水只排放到其可能造成破坏较小的区域。例如，根据现有的雨水径流路径，重新规划选定泄洪通道，利用街道将雨水引向受雨洪影响较小的区域，如运动场和公园。在《哥本哈根气候适应计划》的“哥本哈根绿色气候保护”章节中[20]，哥本哈根市强调了EbA措施在雨洪滞留方面的作用，制定了多尺度层面的EbA措施框架，包括市域的蓝绿基础设施规划、社区公共绿色空间规划，以及单体建筑的绿色屋顶和立体绿化的设计。

此外，《哥本哈根气候适应计划》也首次强调了对公众的赋权，明确了向公众和企业传播适应气候变化知识的必要性[20]。

2.2《哥本哈根市大暴雨管理计划》

大暴雨是丹麦政府应用的一个术语，其被丹麦气象研究所（DMI）定义为30 min内有15 mm以上降水的极端降雨情形。因此，《哥本哈根市大暴雨管理计划》是《哥本哈根气候适应计划》的一个拓展，哥本哈根市从以下4个方面制定了管理类似极端降雨的战略：1）制定增强城市抗洪韧性的具体策略；
2）划定防洪等级；
3）划分区域并制定优先等级；
4）明确财政规划与责任归属[21]。展开说明如下。

首先，加强城市抗洪能力的具体策略包括以下3个措施。1）雨洪的泄洪路径必须和城市污水的排污管道分离，以满足未来极端降雨的排水需求。2）暴雨雨洪的主要排水方向是流向港口或少量流向市内的淡水湖，将特定的道路和新建的暴雨管网和暴雨隧道作为排洪通道，提升城市排水能力。3）将城市广场、城市绿地和城市湖泊改造为雨洪滞留区。

其次，该计划为城市划定了防洪级别，以根据优先级别定制适应气候变化的改造计划并划分分区。优先考虑4种类型的区域：1）高风险地区；
2）易于实施措施的地区；
3）正在进行城市发展项目的地区；
4）可以获得协同效应的地区。据此，全市被划分为7个集水区。此外，每个区域都根据洪水的可能性和改造的难易程度来确定优先次序。

最后，该计划根据政府的财务预算在不同的时期分阶段实施[21]。为了扩展资金来源，该计划制定了一个激发公众参与和私人投资的筹资模式。项目实施的责任由城市管理者、公用事业公司、私人土地所有者、社区和居民共同承担。

除了上述4个方面的战略力之外，在EbA措施的应用方面，《哥本哈根市大暴雨管理计划》强调了增强蓝绿基础设施系统以调节洪水的计划[21]。

2.3《气候变化适应和投资声明》

《气候变化适应和投资声明》进一步描述了哥本哈根市实施《哥本哈根市大暴雨管理计划》的技术和管理指南。其明确指出，面对气候变化，如果不采取行动可能会使哥本哈根市损失160亿丹麦克朗（约147亿人民币）①。全市污水管网和处理设施的扩建改造工程将花费至少200亿克朗（约184亿人民币）。然而，《哥本哈根气候适应计划》中提出的利用地表疏导和滞留雨洪的解决方案仅需要120亿克朗（约110.5亿人民币），而且比大型地下管道进行排洪的解决方案更灵活[22]。因此，在气候变化适应项目中需要推广利用地表进行疏导、滞留、储存和调节雨洪的解决方案。

该声明进一步定义了哥本哈根市气候变化适应解决方案的4种类型。1）建设“大暴雨通道”。重新调整和选定泄洪道路，改变地形或抬高路缘石，为极端降雨建立雨洪通道。2）建设“滞留道路”。将多个雨水滞留设施整合到选定的街道中，也为改善城市空间以及提升城市蓝绿基础设施的服务能力提供了绝佳机会。3）设计“滞留空间”。利用下沉式停车场、广场、运动场等空间来滞留或储存雨水。4）灵活运用小微空间创建“绿色街道”。充分利用社区内的小规模空间和小型道路，通过自然过程消纳当地雨水径流。根据现场的需要，这些不同的EbA措施可以与当地的空间进行多种组合应用[22]。

笔者总结了哥本哈根市的3个主要气候变化适应计划的特点。虽然这3个计划在适应气候变化方面有不同的侧重点，但都建议尽可能地应用EbA措施（表2）。与之前3种不同的气候变化适应计划提到的其他措施相比，哥本哈根市认为EbA措施具有以下明显优势：能够减少气候变化的影响，提供持久和可持续的、具有成本效益的解决方案，能够通过可持续地提供生态系统服务，带来诸如固碳、生物多样性保护以及社会、经济和文化等多种利益[10]。

表2 哥本哈根市的主要气候变化适应计划概述Tab. 2 The overview of main climate change adaptation plans in Copenhagen

哥本哈根市政府实施EbA措施的主要目标是通过现场或就近管理雨水，缓解城市污水道管网的压力，从而降低城市洪涝的风险。同时，市政府还希望为不同物种创造新的栖息地，同时为哥本哈根市居民提供更多在绿色空间的娱乐体验和休闲的机会。因此，哥本哈根市当前应对气候变化计划的EbA措施包括改善以下4种生态系统服务。1）洪水调节，通过吸收和延缓雨洪，减少和预防城市洪涝；
2）气候调节，调节和平衡温度，创造阴凉空间并加速空气循环；
3）栖息地生物多样性保护，为动物和植物创造栖息地；
4）文化生态系统服务，为市民创造娱乐和社会活动的空间和机会。为了加强这些生态系统服务以适应气候变化，哥本哈根市在全市、社区和单体建筑多个尺度采取了EbA措施。

3.1 全市尺度

在全市范围内正在推广建设蓝绿基础设施，滞留城市雨洪并延迟其进入城市污水管网，以此作为加强哥本哈根市气候变化适应性的一项重要举措。哥本哈根市将EbA措施与当地城市规划结合，并建立了与哥本哈根市现有各区绿色空间（图1）相连的廊道，形成了绿色网络[18-19]。现有的“指状规划”中蓝绿基础设施[23]被保留下来，并且正在增设更多的蓝绿空间下垫面，提高绿色网络的连通性。哥本哈根连续的蓝绿基础设施网络可以促进雨水的就地消纳并改善城市气候，加强物种迁移以保护生物多样性，并建立人与自然环境之间强有力的联系。

在这种背景下，哥本哈根市在《气候变化适应和投资声明》中为全市拟定了300个项目以帮助提高城市开放空间的气候适应能力[22]，同时为蓝绿基础设施网络建立更多的蓝绿空间下垫面。并且这些项目的开发全部建立在对子流域、地形、现有城市排水系统、场地条件以及雨水管理模块与城市空间整合潜力的详细分析之上。哥本哈根市政府和哥本哈根市最大的公共事业公司HOFOR将共同资助这300个项目的运营。虽然这300个项目不会同时启动，但每年都会选择几个项目启动。项目的选择基于城市发展和重建的情况以及哥本哈根技术和环境管理委员会对哥本哈根市不同雨洪区域的报告[22]。哥本哈根市气候变化适应政策的实施依靠公共和私人的“共同创造”。其中可能包括市民、小企业和其他非公共行为体在指定区域内的参与，重塑城市景观，改造广场、街道、湖泊和公园，更好地应对未来的暴雨。在项目的运作中，哥本哈根市政府相关管理部门与当地社区和居民合作开发。除了暴雨管理设计之外，城市公共绿地的改善和升级工作也是项目成本的一部分。这300个项目有助于缓解暴雨和洪水对城市造成的破坏，为居民提供公共绿地以促进心理健康，创造娱乐机会同时加强社区参与，并为未来的城市绿地赋予新的意义。

3.2 社区尺度

哥本哈根市在市中心东部的St. Kjelds社区实施了“哥本哈根气候弹性社区”项目，通过EbA措施，展示社区规模的气候变化适应战略应用[24-25]。项目重点在于通过制定对生态负责的解决方案来增加社区绿色空间并提升其应对气候变化的能力，从而提升社区邻里的城市生活质量。在社区范围内采用EbA措施来提高社区气候适应能力的做法，对哥本哈根地区以及全球范围都产生了重要作用。在“哥本哈根气候弹性社区”项目中，哥本哈根市在街区范围内加强了连续的蓝绿基础设施的建设。在指定区域创建了雨水滞留洼地，改造了社区的公共绿地，包括广场、水域、公园、庭院、街旁绿地，以便在社区层面更好地管理当地地表径流。

此外，哥本哈根市还鼓励在私人住宅楼的庭院里建立袖珍雨水花园和蓄水池。主要目标是通过使用EbA措施，减少30%流向城市污水管道的地表雨水径流[26-28]。此外，这些应用于社区的EbA措施可以提升城市环境中的生物多样性，创造更好和更绿色的城市空间，提高社区生活品质，为居民提供更好的生活环境，提升当地社区居民的认同感，“哥本哈根气候弹性社区”项目代表了在社区层面进行的气候适应实践的创新模式，为市民赋权并激发他们在社区的能动性。通过践行EbA措施，社区创建了更多的雨水滞留区，同时为当地乡土物种提供了栖息地。在这个过程中，社区层面的生态系统服务，如洪水调节、娱乐和栖息地保护都得到了改善。这些社区层面的EbA措施应用是中央城市规划办公室、HOFOR公司、当地的城市更新办公室和社区委员会以及居民之间合作的结果。

3.3 单体建筑尺度

哥本哈根市还将单体建筑视为建设连续的蓝绿基础设施网络的微观组成部分。市政府决定与当地社区和居民合作，在单体建筑中采用EbA措施，尽可能地建立绿色屋顶、垂直绿化并补植适应当地气候的植被，更好地提高适应气候变化的生态系统服务[25-26]。

值得一提的是哥本哈根市对屋顶绿化政策及其在滞留降雨、调节温度、建立栖息地和促进建筑和城市功能方面的关注[26]。《哥本哈根绿色屋顶》最初源于2009年哥本哈根联合国气候变化大会上提出的利用屋顶绿化帮助城市应对气候变化的目标[26]，后来相关屋顶绿化的政策也被纳入《哥本哈根气候适应计划》。屋顶绿化被列为加强绿色基础设施并增强气候变化适应潜力的EbA措施。屋顶绿化政策要求所有屋顶坡度低于30°的新建筑，在满足美观和实用的基础上，屋顶都应该利用植被进行绿化[25]。这一政策在著名的项目，如BIG建筑事务所设计的哥本哈根山（CopenHill）和8字住宅（8 House）以及一些地方规划项目等中得到了执行。绿色屋顶提供了多重生态系统服务：1）通过种植适应当地气候的植被为动植物创造新的栖息地，提供生物多样性保护服务；
2）通过减少日常小雨的地表径流，提供洪水调节服务；
3）通过缓解城市热岛，提供气候调节服务；
4）提供城市农业和食品生产等服务；
5）通过创造娱乐机会，提供文化服务。

《哥本哈根气候适应计划》明确了土地所有者和建筑物所有者在实施当地雨水管理解决方案中发挥的必要作用。这些诸如绿色屋顶、绿墙和私人花园等EbA措施的实施都依赖于公共-私人“共同创造”的过程，即公民、小企业和其他非公共行为体在指定区域和个别建筑物的合作共建[19]。根据目前的计划，预计在未来几年内，哥本哈根市将在新建筑上安装大约200 000 m2的绿色屋顶、垂直绿化和私人雨水花园[26]。除了目前对新建筑的要求，哥本哈根市还计划通过更直接的支持政策鼓励单体建筑方面的EbA措施。这些措施还包括通过提供直接的财政奖励，补偿一些初始和不可忽视的安装成本，并通过退还部分污水处理费，增强目前的间接财政奖励的灵活性[25]（表3）。

位于Østerbro区的St. Kjelds社区是哥本哈根市气候变化适应计划的第一个社区级实施项目[27-28]。由于该社区设施较为老旧，人口密集，同时缺乏绿色公共空间，因此在2010年被哥本哈根市政府选为第一个由政府发起实施的项目，促进气候变化从战略框架转变为实际行动。该项目已成为哥本哈根市气候适应性社区的旗舰试点，展示了如何利用EbA措施与社区内各利益相关者建立合作，从而完成城市空间的更新[27]。

4.1 建立气候弹性社区的多尺度EbA措施

St. Kjelds社区项目采用了多重EbA措施来适应气候变化。1）该项目利用2个气候适应广场，即Tåsinge广场和St. Kjelds广场作为社区雨洪的主要滞留区[27-28]；
2）在社区层面将Bryggervangen街沿线街边绿地改造成雨水花园（图2）；
3）增设了垂直绿化墙面、街边的雨水庭院等其他滞留设施；
4）通过滞留、蒸发、收集、再利用等方式，在街道层面管理雨水，创造自然的城市空间。该社区更新项目包括创建可渗透的多功能绿地和地下蓄水池。蓄水池可通过连接邻近的建筑物来收集屋顶上的降雨，蓄水池储存的雨水通过特制装置用于灌溉。当蓄水池满了之后，多余的水将进入污水处理系统。相应的景观和体育设施也创造了城市的休闲活动空间，这些空间与街道上的商店共同形成了一个公共休闲和自然教育的区域，并为社区营造更好的商业环境从而带来更多的就业机会。

在这个过程中，改造后的绿色屋顶和外墙、蓝绿基础设施以及雨水滞留空间等EbA项目被证实可以减少当地30%的雨水地表径流，从而改善当地的洪水调节服务[28]。此外，由EbA措施创造的新绿地（50 000 m2）增强了其他生态系统服务，例如生境保护，以及包括休闲娱乐、社会关系、归属感在内的文化服务，甚至有居民在屋顶和花园种植作物从而增加了供给服务[26-27]。

4.2 气候弹性社区应用EbA措施的合作规划与公众参与

St. Kjelds社区项目中的合作规划和公众参与程序极大促进了EbA措施在气候适应性社区的应用[27-29]。社区参与、场所营造和政府参与的合作是促使和支持该老旧社区更新成为气候变化适应性社区的出发点。合作规划中首先成立了一个由利益相关者组成的委员会，包括作为管理者的哥本哈根市技术和环境管理局、作为主要合作伙伴的HOFOR公司、作为设计者的一系列咨询公司，以及代表公共利益的居民。历经3年时间，委员会利用各种活动向居民征求意见，然后用专业的技术方案予以回应[29-30]。通过公众会议、访谈、调查问卷、种植活动、居民聚餐和研讨会等方式，千余人次的公众聚集到项目现场，提出他们的想法和意见。委员会还结合诸多利益相关者的建议，调整计划的指定和实施。在整个过程中，所有利益相关者都积极参与项目实施，密集的互动和充分的宣传使人们了解到各方目标与诉求。此外，在接下来的项目维护和管理中，通过实施合作和志愿服务，促进项目后续的可持续发展。这个项目的成功实施也使其成为EbA措施实施中如何与公众合作解决复杂的技术、经济和管理问题的范例。

本研究概述了哥本哈根市目前的气候适应计划，以及EbA措施如何在多尺度上与当地气候适应实施相结合。介绍了该市如何通过EbA措施与各利益相关方合作，实施具体的气候适应EbA措施。最后，笔者总结了在包括市政府当局和社区管理者与居民、设计师和项目开发商等多方利益相关者在内的多尺度的合作中，哥本哈根市应用EbA措施建设气候适应城市的经验，具体涉及3个方面内容。

5.1 项目前的深入数据准备和分析

基于对当地雨洪风险的系统分析，哥本哈根市制定了应用EbA措施的气候变化适应与管理政策，并且在多个与气候变化适应相关的政策中均提出了气候变化风险等级划分的概念。在气候变化风险等级划分的过程中，对有关地形、海平面上升、雨洪、市内径流分布以及不同地区的基础设施和房地产的价值等信息进行了分析。以这些信息作为依据，哥本哈根市根据地块条件制定了气候变化风险地图。市域内的所有上述相关信息都被收集到当地的地理信息（GIS）数据库中，形成展示洪水的空间范围和深度以及受其影响地区的房产与基础设施等经济价值的区域地图。

气候变化风险地图将对最关键或优先保护的区域进行分类，如历史遗迹、产业和商业以及基础设施；
这些区域分别被赋予应对气候变化的优先等级顺序。结合该风险优先区域，哥本哈根技术和环境委员会[22]在对预期结果、实施、建设成本以及与其他发展项目的协调成本进行综合分析后，批准EbA措施的实施。委员会在年度预算编制中会把一些项目或者区域在实践中视为优先发展领域予以支持，包括容易实施的项目、高效的雨洪滞留道路和区域，以及近年来遭受损失最大的地区等。

5.2 基于生态系统的适应性设计与城市空间景观设计的紧密结合

在城市土地紧张的情况下，哥本哈根市将EbA措施纳入气候适应规划，推动蓝绿基础设施与城市公共空间的协同发展。因此，将EbA措施与城市空间景观结合已成为哥本哈根市在政策和实践层面上支持气候变化适应性规划的主流思路，并且在城市总体规划和城市项目开发中得以实施。例如，如果社区建设公共绿地和开发商开发住宅区，EbA措施和元素则必须被视为开发项目的一部分，同时将城市空间设计和雨洪管理联系起来，有助于利用融资来扩大气候适应规划的范围[15]。哥本哈根市计划未来在城市景观设计层面实现气候适应规划，通过治理溪流、湖泊和改造多功能绿地，将城市公共空间的景观和雨洪管理功能结合起来。而EbA项目的具体实施内容包括改造公共空间和改建绿化带、雨水花园、滞洪池，以及在社区内增建包括雨水花园在内的口袋花园和绿色屋顶等，从局部到整体完善了哥本哈根蓝绿基础设施，同时也在社会效益方面创造了更多了社区居民的休闲娱乐的空间。这些项目在应对气候变化的同时，还创造了新的绿地，使它们在无雨时成为受公众欢迎的活力空间，从而提高城市宜居性，促进城市的可持续发展。

5.3 协调多方利益相关与促进公众参与

在哥本哈根，公众参与是城市规划项目执行的重要组成部分，公众的意愿和意见在很大程度上会影响最终项目方案的进程[31]。在项目执行过程中，居民、设计团队和城市问题相关专家以及其他利益相关者进行协调并共享各自的知识[29-31]。居民们根据他们的愿望和需要对项目提出要求，设计团队再将各种公众意见转化为项目方案。以同样的方式，哥本哈根市在实施EbA措施建设气候适应项目时，充分调集社会各方的积极性，使各方取得经济、环境和社会的多方长期效益。由于不同场地对雨水的滞留和管理能力各不相同，哥本哈根市并没有为不同的EbA措施实践项目规定统一的雨水保留量，而是将每个项目的雨水滞留效果作为激励社区公众参与的重要部分。

公众参与也是设计过程中的一个重要部分。因为只有当地居民更加了解场地的雨洪管理目标与细节后参与其中并提出愿景，设计工作者才能更加精确地对场地内的雨洪和城市空间进行设计管理。在这一过程中，居民同样参与了实际工作，并且设计部分就是他们愿景的贯彻，因此居民从参与自己的邻里社区建设中产生更强烈的社区归属感。某位在Østerbro区工作的公务员说：“在哥本哈根气候变化适应过程的实践中，场地滞留雨水的能效越高，社区对实施EbA措施的项目的反馈就越好，政府提供的相应资助就越多。”这样的机制激励着设计师和社区为项目做更多的贡献。而这些资金投入也远少于单纯地升级或者更换雨水管网的成本，同时减少了对居民生活的影响并且有助于改善居民的生活质量。通过协调各利益相关者实施EbA项目，哥本哈根市不仅节省了更多的资金开支，而且在这个过程中能可持续地管理城市雨洪情况，并为邻里社区改造提供灵感、激发创造力、引导积极健康的生活方式，实现经济、环境和社会的长期效益。

本研究阐明了EbA措施是如何在哥本哈根通过多尺度项目合作实施的。探讨了哥本哈根市是如何协同政府、公司、市民和其他地方利益相关者，从市政层面到小规模层面战略性地实施气候变化适应政策和实践雨洪管理。此外，总结了哥本哈根在多尺度气候适应的合作规划中EbA措施的实施经验，包括在早期阶段做充分的数据准备、严谨的规划，雨水管理和城市开放空间与景观设计的良好整合，促进公众参与并与各种利益相关者的合理协调。

当前，推广EbA措施来应对气候变化的观点已被广泛关注，包括UNFCCC和《巴黎协定》。全球已有超过91个城市（包括9个中国城市）加入了C40联盟，承诺实施《巴黎协定》，并在其适应气候变化的战略中加强了对EbA的关注。哥本哈根运用EbA措施进行多尺度的合作规划，从而促进气候适应性城市建设，为其他城市未来在应对气候变化举措方面提供了启示与借鉴。

注释：

① 2022年8月25日汇率，1丹麦克朗=0.931 3人民币。

图表来源：

图1由作者基于哥本哈根大学Science-IGN-GIS数据库绘制；
图2-1、2-2由作者拍摄，图2-3由作者根据参考文献[28]绘制。表1由作者根据参考文献[5]绘制；
表2由作者综述哥本哈根市政府出台的气候适应文件后绘制；
表3由作者绘制。

（编辑/刘昱霏）

XU Haiyun, LIU Li, DING Peng, (DNK) Maja Steen Moller

1 Introduction

Climate change has become an important factor affecting global sustainable development[1].The IPCC addressed that many parts of the world in recent years have experienced disasters caused by climate change, including sudden extreme weather events, such as floods, storms, droughts, high temperatures, heat waves, cold waves, and sea-level rise[2]. This negative impact will continue for at least the next 100 years[3]. These climate catastrophes pose concerns and risks to humans, properties, and services in towns and societies.

Climate change adaptation defines the adjustment of natural or human systems responding to climatic changes for their beneficial opportunities[4]. The adaptation can be understood as a process, action, or outcome in a system (e.g.,ecosystem), which improves the system for better adjusting to changing conditions of climate[5].Adapting to climate change can be accomplished in a variety of ways. Ecosystem-based techniques are receiving more consideration. Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) was first recognized in international policy by theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) in 2008, and it has since been strongly encouraged by environmental groups[6]. EbA is defined as the management, conservation, and restoration of ecosystem services (ES) to assist people in adapting to the adverse consequences of climate change[7]. The scope of EbA is diverse, in which it can work for a specific existing climatic hazard,explore factors that cause an existing climatic hazard to help to respond or recover from the hazard,target future climate changes, or deal with current climate change adaptation deficits[5,8]. Its response to climate change is based on the management of ES Provisioning services, such as food production,fuel, and water; regulating services, like natural mitigation strategies, erosion prevention, and flood regulations; supporting services, including soil formation; and cultural services, such as recreational and other non-material benefits are all examples of ES[9]. These ES, such as provisioning and regulating ecosystem services, define the ecosystems’critical functions in climate change adaptation and disaster preparedness. They are crucial for climate change adaptation and catastrophe risk mitigation in the future. These services also highlight the benefits of EbA initiatives: as opposed to typical infrastructure-based measures EBA initiatives, offer economic interventions that are more intimately tied to nature and can deliver various advantages beyond climate change adaptation[10]. Biodiversity protection through improved habitat conditions,better recreation and tourism facilities, and increased food production are just a few advantages[11-13]. The EbA measures include types that depend on local context, ecosystem type, and climate change hazard.For example, in an urban context facing higher flood risks for people and infrastructure, stormwater management using green spaces is the increasingly used EbA. While in marine and coastal contexts facing a decrease in fishing production, sustainable fishing and coastal reef restoration are the EbA measures that should be used. And for the flood risks in marine and coastal contexts, suitable EbA measures include mangrove restoration and coastal protection. EbA has quickly risen to prominence as a critical component of worldwide climate strategy.Many cities in Europe have looked into its prospects in climate change adaptation urban planning[14-15].

However, little information is available on the actual inclusion of EbA measures in urban climate change adaptation plans because of the lack of documentation of the implementations.The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group (C40),for example, is a global network of cities dedicated to combating climate change and advocating theParis Agreement[16]. Among all the European cities in C40 networks, only 2.3% of cities have implications for EbA measures, even though more than 45% mentioned various EbA measures(Tab. 1) for climate change adaptation in their plans[7]. Many cities may lack the organizational capacity of different stakeholders at varying levels needed to combine climate change adaptation other sustainability objectives, and therefore have difficulty in promoting the practice of EbA. Given that Copenhagen is one of the most well-known cities to implement EbA measures[7,16-17], this article aimed to overview Copenhagen’s climate change adaptation strategies across multiple scales. The study explored how the city strategically governs the ecosystem-based climate change adaptation practices from municipality-level schemes to smallscale place-based community green space projects for managing various local ecosystem services in collaboration with citizens and other stakeholders.

2 Background of Copenhagen and Its Climate Change Adaptation Plans

The City of Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, has a temperate maritime climate with mild seasons and rainfall, and the most frequent rainfall is between July and August. Over the past decade,Copenhagen has confronted the pressure of climate change, the most severe two flood events took place in 2011 and 2014, which surpassed the “oncein-a-century” rainfall. The Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) expected extreme weather such as intense rainfall and longer drought cycles will become more prevalent in Denmark. By 2100, the rainfall intensity of a “10-year rainfall” event will rise by 30% to 40%; Peak summer temperatures in Copenhagen are projected to increase by 2°C to 3°C by 2050. Copenhagen will also encounter difficulties from rising sea levels. The seawater level around the city will increase by about 1 meter in the following 100 years. These pose a direct stormwater flooding challenge to the urban life of Copenhagen and keep threatening the growth of cities[15].

In this situation, City of Copenhagen has a high ambition for the quality of life and local action toward climate change mitigation and adaptation. As a result, climate change adaptive cities have become an essential part of Copenhagen’s urban planning and policy development. Over the past decade,Copenhagen City has established various adaptation policies and plans for climate change adaptation[15-16].Denmark’s predominant climate change challenges determine the use of and focus on climate change related terminology in urban practice. In addition,the scope and connotation of terminology change throughout time and as policies evolve. For climate change adaptation, the discussion and practice in Denmark over the years has mostly focused on urban stormwater management and urban landscape integration. In recent years, Denmark has given more attention to sea level rise, but the relevant talks and practice initiatives will illustrate in detail how they intend to adapt. In reference to the practice of climate change adaptation, the completed projects in Copenhagen are primarily focused on the combination of urban stormwater management and urban landscape planning. Based on the above, this study focuses on urban stormwater management in the constructed practices of Copenhagen’s climate change-adaptive cities.

2.1 Copenhagen Climate Adaptation Plan

The plan is developed to deal with more frequent stormwater in Copenhagen in the future while being able to support integrated social,economic, and environmental sustainability and the improvement of the quality of life of residents,which responds to the UN’s sustainable development goals[17-20]. The plan emphasizes the most significant possible synergy with other urban planning and extra social gains beyond the flood regulation, such as recreational opportunities and an improved local environment with more green elements[1]. In this plan, the Copenhagen Municipality developed three main climate change adaptation measures for heavier downpours and higher sea levels[15,20].

Measure 1 relates to the adaptation of infrastructure, comprising the expansion of sewerage capacity and passive construction of pumping stations and dams. This action is implemented in areas where there is a possibility of severe damage, and the Copenhagen Municipality takes this measure first to prevent damage.

Measure 2 concerns detention of stormwater within an urban site or the disconnection of stormwater from the sewers at the buildings and streets to divert it to separated stormwater sewers or to Sustainable Urban Drainage System (SuDS). This reduces the proportion of stormwater discharged into the combined urban drainage network.

Measure 3 assures that floodwaters are discharged only to the least damaging areas in extreme rainfall situations. For instance, by rerouting selected floodways based on existing stormwater runoff paths, streets are utilized to direct stormwater to less impactful areas such as sports fields and parks. Among these measures,ecological-based climate change adaptation measures are highlighted in a chapter ofCopenhagen Climate Adaption Plancalled ‘Greener Climate Proofing Copenhagen’ in theCopenhagen Climate Adaptation Plan[20]. This planned the framework of EbA measures in multiple-scale levels, from regional bluegreen infrastructure planning in municipalities to communities and green roofs in individual buildings.

Moreover, theCopenhagen Climate Adaption Planalso firstly highlights the empowerment of the public. It emphasizes on disseminating knowledge to the public and businesses for climate change adaption[20].

2.2 The City of Copenhagen Cloudburst Management Plan 2012

In the Danish context, a cloudburst is defined by Danish Meteorological Insititute (DMI) to define a rainstorm that provides a minimum of 15 mm of precipitation in a maximum of 30 minutes. This plan is an offshoot of theCopenhagen Climate Adaptation Plan, and the Copenhagen Municipality has established its strategy for managing extreme rainfall in four aspects, including 1) specific strategies to strengthen urban flood resilience; 2) defining flood protection levels; 3) zoning and defining of priority levels; 4) financial planning and responsibility allocation[21].

To begin, the specific strategies to strengthen urban flood resilience include: 1) Stormwater must be separated from municipal wastewater to meet future extreme rainfall drainage needs; 2) the rainstorm’s major drainage is primarily directed to the harbor and a minor part to freshwater basins.Selected roads and newly constructed cloudburst pipes and tunnels are applied as flood channels to boost urban drainage capacity; 3) stormwater detention by transforming urban squares, urban green spaces and urban lakes as detention zones.

Secondly, the plan defines flood protection levels for the city to customize the climate change adaptation transformation and implementation zones according to the priority level. It prioritized four types of areas: 1) high-risk areas; 2) areas where measures are easy to implement; 3) areas with ongoing urban development projects; 4) areas where synergistic effects can be gained. According to this, the city is divided into seven catchment zones in the zoning process. Furthermore, each zone is prioritized based on the likelihood of flooding and the ease of retrofitting.

Finally, the plan is gradually in accordance with the government’s financial budget in a period of[21]. The plan states a funding model that attracts public and private investment. Responsibility for implementation is shared among city administrators,utility companies, private landholders, communities,and residents.

In addition to the aforementioned four aspects,for the EbA measures,The City of Copenhagen Cloudburst Management Plan 2012highlights the ambition of increasing the blue-green infrastructure for flood regulation[21].

2.3 Climate Change Adaptation and Investment Statement

This statement further describes mainly the technical and management guidance for implementingThe City of Copenhagen Cloudburst Management Plan 2012. The statement argues that collapse to act in the face of climate change could cost Copenhagen 16 billion Danish kroner①. The corresponding expansion of the sewerage network will cost at least 20 billion kroner. However, the combination of surface conveyance and detention solutions for flood regulation in theCopenhagen Climate Adaptation Planonly needs 12 billion kroner and is much more flexible than large pipeline solutions[22]. Thus the surface and detention solution needs to be broadly promoted in climate change adaptation projects.

The statement further defines four typologies of cloudburst management solutions in Copenhagen.1) The construction of “cloudburst roads,” where selected roads are realigned, the topography is changed, or curbs are raised to build a floodway for extreme rainfall. 2) Constructing “detention roads”that integrate multiple detention elements into selected streets to retain and store stormwater. This usually provides great chances to incorporate urban spatial improvements to serve urban blue-green infrastructure plans. 3) Designing “detention areas”to retain or detain stormwater by utilizing spaces such as sunken parking areas, plazas, sports fields,etc. 4) Making full use of small-scale spaces such as green streets in the community to retain stormwater runoff locally through a natural process. Depending on the site’s needs, these different EbA measures can be applied in diverse combinations with urban green space design[22].

Table 2 summarizes the characteristics of Copenhagen’s major climate change adaptation plans. While the three plans have different scopes and priorities in climate change adaptation, they all applied EbA measures in various degrees.Compared with the other measures mentioned in previous three different climate adaptation plans, the advantages of EbA measures have been clarified that EbA is able to provide lasting and sustainable, cost effective solutions for reducing the impacts of climate change, and contribute multiple co-benefits (e.g., carbon sequestration as well as social, economic and cultural benefits) through the sustainable delivery of ecosystem services[10].

3 Ecological-Based Adaption (EbA)in Multiple Scales Cooperation

The main goals of implementing EbA measures in Copenhagen are to relieve pressure on the city’s sewer network by managing stormwater onsite or close by where it falls, therefore the risk of urban flooding is reduced. At the same time,the Municipality also wants to create new habitats for species while providing Copenhageners with more recreational experiences and leisure options in green spaces. Thus, the EbA measures of current climate change plans in Copenhagen include the improvement of the following ecosystem services, including 1) flood regulation, reduce and prevent urban flooding by absorbing and retarding stormwater, 2) climate regulation, moderate and balance temperature, create shade and air circulation. 3) habitant biodiversity conservation,create habitats for animals and plants, and 4) cultural ecosystem service, create spaces and opportunities for recreation and social activities for citizens.Aiming to enhance these ecosystem services for climate change adaptation, the city of Copenhagen performed EbA measures on multiple scales.

3.1 Municipality Scale

At the municipality scale, the construction of blue-green infrastructure to detain urban stormwater and delay its entry into the urban sewer network is being promoted throughout the city as one of the major initiatives for cloudburst management in Copenhagen. The Copenhagen Municipality thus integrated the EbA measures with local urban planning and established corridors and green networks linked to existing green spaces and waters in Copenhagen Municipality[18-19](Fig. 1). These existing green spaces and waters[23], contributing to the important structure of the “finger plan” for the Copenhagen region, are preserved, and more green and blue surfaces are being established to improve the coherence of green networks. Copenhagen’s continuous blue-green infrastructure networks could contribute to the local dissipation of stormwater and improve the urban climate, enhance species movement for biodiversity conservation, and create attractive links between people and their natural surroundings.

In this context, the Copenhagen Municipality has sketched 300 projects across the municipality inClimate Change Adaptation and Investment Statementto enhance the urban open spaces’climate change adaptation capability and supply more green and blue surfaces for the blue-green infrastructure networks[22]. The development of these projects is under a detailed analysis of subcatchments, topography, the existing urban drainage systems, site conditions, and the potential of integrating stormwater management components with urban space. The Copenhagen Municipality and Copenhagen region’s largest utility company HOFOR will jointly fund the implementation of these 300 projects. The 300 projects will not be launched simultaneously, but a few projects will be chosen each year. The choice of the project is based on the situation of urban development and reconstruction and the reports from the Copenhagen Technical and Environmental Management Committee for the diverse water areas of Copenhagen[22]. The Copenhagen climate change adaptation strategy relies on a public-private ‘cocreation’. These may include the participation of citizens, small businesses, and other non-public actors in designated areas to retrofit the cityscape,adapting squares, streets, lakes, and parks to better cope with future cloudbursts. In the implementation of the projects, the relevant administrations of Copenhagen Municipality developed them in cooperation with local communities and residents.Apart from stormwater management design,improvements and upgrading work to urban public green spaces can comprise project costs. These 300 projects are expected to help mitigate stormwater and flood damage, provide public green spaces for mental health and recreation opportunities for residents, enhance community participation, and bring meaning to future urban green spaces.

3.2 Community Scale

The Copenhagen Municipality implemented“Copenhagen Climate-Resilient Neighborhood”projects in St. Kjelds Neighborhood, in the eastern part of Copenhagen’s central city, to demonstrate the community-scale implementation of climate change adaptation strategies through EbA solutions[24-25]. The focus is to enhance the quality of urban life in the community and neighborhood by developing ecologically responsible solutions,adapting to climate change, and developing greener areas. The practices with EbA for climate change adaptation on a community scale have a significant impact on a local, regional, national and global scale. In the “Copenhagen Climate-Resilient Neighborhood” projects, the Copenhagen Municipality strengthens continuous blue-green infrastructure works on neighborhood scales. This creates stormwater basins in designated areas,remodeling the community’s public green spaces,and adapts squares, courtyards, street areas, lakes,and parks better to manage local surface water runoff at the community level.

Moreover, establishing pocket rain gardens and water tanks in the courtyards of private residential buildings was also encouraged. The main objective is to reduce 30% of surface stormwater runoff to sewers by using EbA solutions[26-28].Besides, these EbA applied in the community could enhance the biodiversity of habitats in the urban context and create better and greener urban spaces for improving community life with better living conditions for the citizens and better identity for the local neighborhood. The “Copenhagen Climate-Resilient Neighborhood” represents an innovative model for climate adaptation at the community level, driven by efforts to engage and empower citizens in their neighborhoods. These EbA measures have created more stormwater retention or detention areas while providing leisure green spaces and habitat for species. In this process, the ecosystem services at community level such as flood regulation, recreation, and habitat conservation has been improved. These implantations of EbA measures at the community level are the result of collaboration between the Central City Planning Office, HOFOR, Copenhagen’s largest utility company, the local urban renewal office and committee in the communities, and residents.

3.3 Individual Building Scale

The Copenhagen Municipality also regarded individual buildings as the components in a microscale of the construction of continuous green and blue infrastructure networks. The Municipality decided to perform EbA measures in individual buildings in cooperation with local communities and residents to establish green roofs and walls, and replanted trees wherever possible to better enhance the ecosystem services for adapting to climate change[25-26].

Notable is Copenhagen’s emphasis on green roof policy and its role in retaining precipitation,regulating temperature, providing habitat, and boosting building and urban function[26].Green Roofs Copenhagenstrategy on green roof policy and planning originally originated from the goal of using green roofs to help cities combat climate change at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in 2009[26]. Later, the green roof program was incorporated into theCopenhagen Climate Adaptation Plan. Green roofs were included as an EbA measure for enhancing green infrastructure and delivering adaptation potential. The green roof policy requires that all new buildings with a roof slope below 30 degrees have green vegetation to the extent that this is acceptable aesthetics and practicality[25]. This policy is realized in well-known projects such as CopenHill and 8 House designed by BIG architects and several local plans. The green roofs represent various ecosystem services, including 1) biodiversity conservation services through creating new habitats using flora and fauna adapted for the local climate; 2) flood regulating services through reducing surface runoff under regular rain showers; 3) climate regulating services through mitigating urban heat islands;4) provisioning services such as urban agriculture and food production; and 5) cultural services through improving recreation opportunities.

In these climate change adaptation plans and policies, landowners and building owners are specifically articulated to have a necessary role in implementing local stormwater management solutions. These EbA measures such as green roofs,green walls, and private gardens relied on a process of public-private ‘co-creation’: the participation of citizens, small businesses, and other nonpublic actors in designated areas and individual buildings[19].It is expected from the approved new local plans that about 200, 000 m2of green roofs, green walls, and private rain gardens will be installed on new buildings over the coming years[26]. Beyond the present requirement of new buildings, the Copenhagen Municipality plans to encourage these EbA measures in individual buildings through more direct support. These may include providing direct financial incentives to compensate for some of the initial and non-negligible installation costs and making the current indirect financial incentives more flexible by permitting a partial refund of the sewage connection fee[25](Tab. 3).

4 The EbA Implantation Case of Climate-Resilient Neighborhood

St. Kjelds Neighborhood, located in the Østerbro District, is the first community-level implementation of Copenhagen’s climate change adaptation plan[27-28]. Because of derelict facilities,dense population, and lack of green space, it was chosen by the Copenhagen Municipality in 2010 as the first government-initiated project to accelerate the implementation of climate change adaptation strategies into practical actions and solutions. The project has become Copenhagen’s flagship pilot to show how to use EbA measures to renew urban spaces with various stakeholder cooperation in the community[27].

4.1 Multiple Scale EbA Measures for Establishing Climate Resilient Neighborhood

This project adopted various EbA measures for climate change adaptation on multiple scales.The project incorporates the following components:1) two climate change adaptation squares, i.e.,Tåsinge Square and St. Kjelds Square as the primary detention area for a large amount of stormwater[27-28];2) detentions roads, such as Bryggervangen Street,that detain or delay stormwater at the community scale by transforming street side green space into rain gardens (Fig. 2); 3) a range of green roofs,green walls and stormwater detention courtyards at building scale; 4) other facilities to manage stormwater through retention, detention, storage and reuse, generating green urban spaces while managing stormwater more naturally and efficiently at the community scale. This neighborhood revitalization project included the creation of permeable multipurpose green spaces and underground rainwater storage tanks and aboveground and underground reservoirs. Rainwater storage tanks collect rooftop runoff from the adjacent buildings, which can be used for irrigation through special devices. Surplus stormwater will enter the sewerage system when the reservoirs are full. Urban spaces for recreational activities have also been created with landscaping and sporting facilities. Together with the shops in the streets, these spaces form an area for public leisure and nature education and bring more job opportunities to the community.

In the process, EbA measures such as green roofs and facades, blue-green infrastructure, and detention spaces have been first proved to improve local flood regulation service, which gradually disconnects 30% of the stormwater from the urban catchment[28]. Besides, the new green spaces(50,000 m2) created by EbA measures enhanced other ecosystem services such as habitat conservation,cultural ecosystem services like recreation, social relations, a sense of belonging, and even food production in some roofs and gardens[26-27].

4.2 Collaborative Planning and Public Participation Using EbA Measures for Climate-Resilient Neighborhood

The project’s collaborative planning and public participation procedures significantly contributed to climate change adaptation through EbA measures[27-29]. The interplay of community engagement, place-making, and governmental engagement was the starting point for the initiative.A committee was set in the cooperation, which consisted of stakeholders including the Technical and Environmental Administration from the Copenhagen Municipality as the manager, HOFOR as the main partner, a number of consultancy companies and design studios as the designers for various sub-projects, and residents who represent the interests of the public well-being. For three years, the committee collected the residents’ inputs through various activities and then responded with professional technical solutions[29-30]. Amounts of public meetings, interviews, questionnaires, planting events, resident dinners, and workshops were organized to bring together more than a thousand people to reach the project site and contribute their ideas and views. The committee also coordinated proposals from many stakeholders and developed and implemented the plan. All stakeholders were actively involved in the project throughout this procedure. Intensive interaction and sufficient publicity led to an understanding of different parties’ objectives and demands. In addition, it is an integrated part of the project to implement collaboration and volunteering in the following maintenance and management to promote the subsequent sustainable development of the project.The successful implementation of this project also serves as an example of how to solve complex technical, economical, and managerial problems.

5 Discussion

Our study overviewed Copenhagen’s current climate change adaptation plans and how EbA measures are integrated with local climate change adaptation implementations at multiple scales. We also present how the city implemented a specific climate change adaptation project with EbA measures collaborating with various stakeholders.We close the paper with Copenhagen’s experiences of applying EbA measures for building climate change adaptation city with multiple-scale cooperation among municipality and community managers, consultancy companies, designers, and residents. These experiences are as follows.

5.1 Pre-project Data Preparation and Analysis in Depth

Copenhagen’s ecosystem-based climate change adaptation policy and management conduct are based on a systematic analysis of flood risks in Copenhagen.Consequently, the concept of screening climate change risks is proposed. The concept combines information on topography, sea-level rise, storms,rainfall/runoff distribution within the municipality,and the value of infrastructure and real estates in different regions. This unified information is adopted to develop a climate change risk map based on parcel conditions. All of the above relevant information within the municipality is collected as the local GIS database to form regional maps that can view the spatial extent and depth of flooding and present the economic value of properties, infrastructure, etc.

The climate change risk map will classify the most critical or priority areas for conservation,such as historical sites, industries and business, and infrastructure; each provides a priority ranking for addressing climate change. Applying the climate risk map with priority areas, the Technical and Environmental Committee of Copenhagen[22]can identify projects after a comprehensive analysis of the expected outcome, implementation, construction cost, and coordination with other development projects. In practice, some projects would be considered as priority for development in the Committee’s annual budget negotiation, including projects that are easily implemented, efficient and effective detention roads and areas, areas that suffered the most damage in recent years, etc.

5.2 Close Integration of EbA Measures with the Landscape Design of Urban Spaces

In the context of urban land constraints,Copenhagen has intimately connected ecosystembased climate change adaptation planning and urban development by synergistically combining bluegreen infrastructure for climate change adaptation functions with urban public space. As a result,integrating EbA with urban spatial landscaping has turned into the mainstream explication to support climate change adaptation planning in Copenhagen both at the policy and practice level.It is implemented in urban master plans and urban project developments. For instance, if communities build public green space and developers develop housing areas, EbA elements must be deemed part of the development project; hence, connecting urban spatial design and stormwater management and helping to leverage financing to expand the scope of climate change adaptation planning[15].Copenhagen strives to achieve climate change adaptation planning at the urban landscape design level for future projects by refurbishing streams,and lakes, and transforming urban open spaces into multifunctional green spaces with both urban landscape function and stormwater management function. These projects could transform public spaces into green belts, rain gardens, flood ponds,pocket gardens in the community, green roofs, and blue-green infrastructure in Copenhagen. They will also provide both the landscape values, leisure and other social benefits for the community residents,when it is not raining. Therefore, they provide great opportunities to improve urban livability.

5.3 Coordinating with Multiple Stakeholders and Promoting Public Participation

In Copenhagen, public participation is an essential part of the execution of urban planning projects, and public will and opinion greatly influence the process of the final project proposal[31]. Residents, the design team, experts,relevant specialistes and stakeholders coordinate and provide their knowledge during the project implementation process[29-31]. Residents express their aspirations and needs, and the design team translates the many public statements into a project proposal.In the same way, the Copenhagen Municipality has been able to mobilize various stakeholder groups in the community to realize long-term economic,environmental, and social benefits in implementing EbA projects for local ecosystem management.Since different sites have diverse site characters and capacities to manage stormwater, the Copenhagen Municipality didn’t stipulate a uniform stormwater management design standard for different EbA projects. Instead, within the general frames of stormwater management plans and local plans,site-based solutions are much encouraged, which provides good motivation for public participation.

Public participation is a significant part of the design process. Through the participation of residents, who know more about the site problems and the needs, design practitioners can more correctly program the stormwater and urban space within the site. The design components thus reflect the residents’ vision. The residents also develop a more robust sense of community belonging from their neighborhood involvement. Some civil servants working in the Østerbro District stated that “In the practices of Copenhagen’s climate change adaptation process, the higher capacity of the site to retain stormwater, the better feedback of the community on the project, and the more financial support from government to the project.” Such a mechanism motivates the designers and the community to contribute to the project. These investments are also much less expensive than just enlarging or upgrading the stormwater network while contributing to the improvement of the inhabitants’ quality of life. By coordinating various stakeholders in implementing the project, the Copenhagen Municipality could manage urban stormwater more sustainably in the process. It inspires the transformation of other urban neighborhoods, provides opportunities for creativity, and calls for new active and healthy lifestyles, which carry a whole range of long-term economic, environmental, and social benefits.

6 Conclusions

This study indicated how EbA measures were implemented on multiple scales in Copenhagen.We explored how the city strategically governs climate change adaption policies and practices from the municipality level to small-scale levels in collaboration with the government, companies,citizens, and other place-based stakeholders.Furthermore, we summarized the experiences of EbA measures in multiple-scale climate adaption cooperative planning in Copenhagen. This refers to adequate data preparation in the early stage,rigorous planning, well-integration of stormwater management design, landscape design of urban open space, coordination of various stakeholders’interests, and public participation.

Currently, the concept of EbA has been promoted through international fora, including theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) andParis Agreement.Including nine Chinese cities, more than ninetyone cities joined the C40 network worldwide to pledge to implement theParis Agreementand have increased attention on EbA in their strategies for adaptation to climate change. The insights from this demonstration of applying EbA methods for climate adaptation city building with cooperative planning at different levels in Copenhagen may inspire future initiatives in other cities.

Note:

① Exchange rate as at 25 August 2022, DKK 1 = RMB 0.9313.

Sources of Figures and Tables:

Fig.1 drawn by authors based on Science-IGN-GIS Database at the University of Copenhagen; Fig. 2-1, 2-2 photographed by authors; Fig. 2-3 drawn by authors referred with [28]. Tab. 1 made by authors referred with[5];Tab. 2 made by author’s literature review on climate change adaption documents published by Copenhagen Municipality; Tab. 3 made by authors.

(Editor / LIU Yufei)

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